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11institutetext: Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, 776 Daedeok-daero, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34055, Republic of Korea 22institutetext: Department of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Science and Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea 33institutetext: Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 44institutetext: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA 55institutetext: Department of Physics, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA 66institutetext: School of Space Research, Kyung Hee University, 1732, Deogyeong-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea 77institutetext: Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, P.O. Box 23-141, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C. 88institutetext: INAF – Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy 99institutetext: Aalto University Metsähovi Radio Observatory, Metsähovintie 114, 02540 Kylmälä, Finland 1010institutetext: Aalto University Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. BOX 15500, FI-00076 AALTO, Finland 1111institutetext: Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO (FINCA), University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, 20014 University of Turku, Finland 1212institutetext: Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía, E-18008, Granada, Spain 1313institutetext: Institute of Astrophysics, Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas, Voutes, 7110 Heraklion, Greece 1414institutetext: Department of Physics, University of Crete, 70013, Heraklion, Greece 1515institutetext: Institut de Radiostronomie Milimétrique, Avenida Divina Pastora, 7, Local 20, E-18012 Granada, Spain

Appendix: Gamma-ray flares from the jet of the blazar CTA 102 in 2016–2018

Sanghyun Kim \scalerel* 1122    Sang-Sung Lee \scalerel* Corresponding author; [email protected]1122    Juan Carlos Algaba \scalerel* 33    Bindu Rani \scalerel* 4455    Jongho Park \scalerel* 6677    Hyeon-Woo Jeong \scalerel* 1122    Whee Yeon Cheong \scalerel* 1122    Filippo D’Ammando \scalerel* 88    Anne Lähteenmäki \scalerel* 991010    Merja Tornikoski \scalerel* 99    Joni Tammi \scalerel* 99    Venkatessh Ramakrishnan \scalerel* 991111    Iván Agudo \scalerel* 1212    Carolina Casadio \scalerel* 13131414    Juan Escudero\scalerel* 1212    Antonio Fuentes\scalerel* 1212    Efthalia Traianou\scalerel* 1212    Ioannis Myserlis\scalerel* 1515    Clemens Thum 1515
(Accepted January 13, 2025)

CTA 102 is a γ\gamma-ray bright blazar that exhibited multiple flares in observations by the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope during the period of 2016–2018. We present results from the analysis of multi-wavelength light curves aiming at revealing the nature of γ\gamma-ray flares from the relativistic jet in the blazar. We analyse radio, optical, X-ray, and γ\gamma-ray data obtained in a period from 2012 September 29 to 2018 October 8. We identify six flares in the γ\gamma-ray light curve, showing a harder-when-brighter-trend in the γ\gamma-ray spectra. We perform a cross-correlation analysis of the multi-wavelength light curves. We find nearly zero time lags between the γ\gamma-ray and optical and X-ray light curves, implying a common spatial origin for the emission in these bands. We find significant correlations between the γ\gamma-ray and radio light curves as well as negative/positive time lags with the γ\gamma-ray emission lagging/leading the radio during different flaring periods. The time lags between γ\gamma-ray and radio emission propose the presence of multiple γ\gamma-ray emission sites in the source. As seen in 43 GHz images from the Very Long Baseline Array, two moving disturbances (or shocks) were newly ejected from the radio core. The γ\gamma-ray flares from 2016 to 2017 are temporally coincident with the interaction between a traveling shock and a quasi-stationary one at \sim0.1 mas from the core. The other shock is found to emerge from the core nearly simultaneous with the γ\gamma-ray flare in 2018. Our results suggest that the γ\gamma-ray flares originated from shock-shock interactions.

Key Words.:
Radiation mechanisms: non-thermal – Gamma rays: galaxies – Galaxies: active – Galaxies: jets – quasars: individual: CTA 102

Appendix A Model fitting parameters

In Table LABEL:tab:_vlba_mfit, we present the fit parameters of the Gaussian modelled jet components obtained from VLBI imaging at 43 GHz.

Table 1: Fit model parameters from 43 GHz data from the VLBA-BU-BLAZAR monitoring program
Date MJD ID Flux Density Distance Size PA
yyyy mon dd (day) Name (Jy) (mas) (mas) (deg)
2016 Jan 01 57388 C0 1.46±\pm0.073 0.0±\pm0.0 0.034±\pm0.007 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.628±\pm0.032 0.097±\pm0.009 0.073±\pm0.012 142.6±\pm2.1
J2 0.034±\pm0.011 0.59±\pm0.04 0.115±\pm0.031 130.2±\pm3.4
J3 0.07±\pm0.013 1.122±\pm0.088 0.337±\pm0.044 124.3±\pm4.2
J4 0.139±\pm0.015 1.903±\pm0.16 0.79±\pm0.057 142.8±\pm4.6
2016 Jan 31 57418 C0 0.941±\pm0.047 0.0±\pm0.0 0.014±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.86±\pm0.044 0.066±\pm0.008 0.083±\pm0.012 133.5±\pm3.0
J1 0.139±\pm0.011 0.283±\pm0.019 0.106±\pm0.021 114.7±\pm2.7
J2 0.055±\pm0.013 0.651±\pm0.09 0.304±\pm0.045 132.4±\pm7.4
J3 0.038±\pm0.013 1.173±\pm0.108 0.293±\pm0.048 124.4±\pm4.9
J4 0.11±\pm0.015 1.766±\pm0.176 0.76±\pm0.059 143.4±\pm5.4
2016 Mar 18 57465 C0 1.06±\pm0.053 0.0±\pm0.0 0.003±\pm0.002 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.869±\pm0.044 0.081±\pm0.008 0.072±\pm0.011 144.6±\pm2.0
J1 0.128±\pm0.012 0.278±\pm0.024 0.133±\pm0.024 116.2±\pm3.8
J2 0.043±\pm0.012 0.62±\pm0.085 0.255±\pm0.044 133.6±\pm7.3
J3 0.047±\pm0.013 1.201±\pm0.128 0.379±\pm0.052 126.5±\pm5.7
J4 0.106±\pm0.015 1.817±\pm0.207 0.856±\pm0.064 143.9±\pm6.2
2016 Apr 22 57500 C0 1.303±\pm0.065 0.0±\pm0.0 0.0±\pm0.0 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.682±\pm0.035 0.087±\pm0.008 0.074±\pm0.012 146.5±\pm2.2
J1 0.112±\pm0.011 0.301±\pm0.025 0.132±\pm0.025 119.7±\pm3.8
J2 0.037±\pm0.012 0.663±\pm0.09 0.249±\pm0.045 132.3±\pm7.2
J3 0.024±\pm0.013 1.264±\pm0.105 0.226±\pm0.048 127.0±\pm4.4
J4 0.123±\pm0.016 1.742±\pm0.223 0.98±\pm0.066 142.1±\pm6.9
2016 Jun 10 57549 C0 1.746±\pm0.087 0.0±\pm0.0 0.006±\pm0.003 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.842±\pm0.043 0.088±\pm0.007 0.061±\pm0.01 150.2±\pm1.5
J1 0.14±\pm0.012 0.286±\pm0.033 0.193±\pm0.028 118.6±\pm5.6
J2 0.034±\pm0.012 0.691±\pm0.089 0.238±\pm0.044 136.4±\pm6.9
J3 0.071±\pm0.014 1.36±\pm0.159 0.559±\pm0.057 130.0±\pm6.3
J4 0.103±\pm0.016 1.979±\pm0.291 1.119±\pm0.073 150.8±\pm8.0
2016 Jul 04 57573 C0 1.952±\pm0.098 0.0±\pm0.0 0.003±\pm0.002 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.647±\pm0.033 0.085±\pm0.008 0.069±\pm0.012 144.3±\pm2.2
J1 0.102±\pm0.011 0.336±\pm0.029 0.146±\pm0.027 121.0±\pm4.1
J2 0.032±\pm0.013 0.774±\pm0.122 0.298±\pm0.051 129.9±\pm8.5
J3 0.032±\pm0.013 1.386±\pm0.111 0.279±\pm0.049 130.5±\pm4.3
J4 0.096±\pm0.015 1.821±\pm0.259 0.982±\pm0.07 146.5±\pm7.7
2016 Jul 31 57600 C0 2.937±\pm0.147 0.0±\pm0.0 0.013±\pm0.003 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.3±\pm0.017 0.099±\pm0.009 0.052±\pm0.012 132.0±\pm2.1
J1 0.104±\pm0.011 0.367±\pm0.026 0.131±\pm0.025 124.2±\pm3.3
J2 0.02±\pm0.013 0.791±\pm0.104 0.206±\pm0.048 128.7±\pm7.1
J3 0.035±\pm0.013 1.442±\pm0.098 0.258±\pm0.046 132.8±\pm3.6
J4 0.071±\pm0.015 1.675±\pm0.22 0.734±\pm0.065 152.6±\pm7.1
2016 Sep 5 57636 C0 3.576±\pm0.179 0.0±\pm0.0 0.032±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C1 0.231±\pm0.013 0.116±\pm0.006 0.018±\pm0.008 129.8±\pm0.6
J1 0.108±\pm0.011 0.345±\pm0.03 0.154±\pm0.027 120.4±\pm4.1
J2 0.038±\pm0.013 0.812±\pm0.118 0.316±\pm0.05 130.8±\pm7.8
J3 0.037±\pm0.012 1.409±\pm0.077 0.217±\pm0.042 131.0±\pm2.9
J4 0.064±\pm0.014 1.617±\pm0.18 0.594±\pm0.06 149.5±\pm6.0
2016 Oct 23 57684 C0 2.975±\pm0.149 0.0±\pm0.0 0.066±\pm0.008 0.0±\pm0.0
J1 0.084±\pm0.011 0.359±\pm0.026 0.118±\pm0.025 127.4±\pm3.4
J2 0.027±\pm0.013 0.94±\pm0.14 0.311±\pm0.054 129.4±\pm8.1
J3 0.019±\pm0.01 1.486±\pm0.024 0.051±\pm0.024 131.9±\pm0.7
J4 0.067±\pm0.015 1.692±\pm0.303 0.936±\pm0.075 145.0±\pm9.8
2016 Nov 28 57720 C0 1.423±\pm0.071 0.0±\pm0.0 0.021±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.941±\pm0.047 0.077±\pm0.007 0.057±\pm0.009 133.6±\pm1.5
J1 0.066±\pm0.011 0.377±\pm0.041 0.163±\pm0.031 117.9±\pm5.4
J2 0.019±\pm0.014 0.764±\pm0.167 0.304±\pm0.058 132.7±\pm11.8
J3 0.032±\pm0.013 1.425±\pm0.128 0.315±\pm0.052 127.5±\pm4.8
J4 0.066±\pm0.015 1.726±\pm0.225 0.724±\pm0.066 144.6±\pm7.1
2016 Dec 23 57745 C0 1.925±\pm0.096 0.0±\pm0.0 0.019±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 1.021±\pm0.052 0.098±\pm0.007 0.065±\pm0.01 140.7±\pm1.3
J1 0.088±\pm0.011 0.415±\pm0.04 0.186±\pm0.031 124.6±\pm4.8
J3 0.011±\pm0.016 1.411±\pm0.372 0.441±\pm0.081 120.3±\pm14.4
J4 0.135±\pm0.015 1.608±\pm0.182 0.864±\pm0.06 142.7±\pm6.1
2017 Jan 14 57767 C0 2.275±\pm0.114 0.0±\pm0.0 0.014±\pm0.004 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.772±\pm0.039 0.109±\pm0.008 0.076±\pm0.012 141.0±\pm1.7
J1 0.079±\pm0.011 0.396±\pm0.032 0.139±\pm0.028 120.6±\pm3.8
J2 0.022±\pm0.014 0.815±\pm0.17 0.333±\pm0.059 134.1±\pm11.3
J3 0.044±\pm0.013 1.468±\pm0.094 0.282±\pm0.045 129.0±\pm3.4
J4 0.1±\pm0.015 1.806±\pm0.209 0.835±\pm0.064 147.3±\pm6.3
2017 Feb 04 57788 C0 2.251±\pm0.113 0.0±\pm0.0 0.013±\pm0.004 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.517±\pm0.027 0.13±\pm0.008 0.056±\pm0.011 142.2±\pm1.3
J1 0.094±\pm0.012 0.423±\pm0.041 0.197±\pm0.031 124.1±\pm4.9
J3 0.06±\pm0.013 1.408±\pm0.121 0.408±\pm0.051 129.2±\pm4.6
J4 0.076±\pm0.015 1.881±\pm0.269 0.906±\pm0.071 146.9±\pm7.8
2017 Mar 19 57831 C0 1.702±\pm0.085 0.0±\pm0.0 0.017±\pm0.004 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.442±\pm0.023 0.139±\pm0.009 0.074±\pm0.013 145.9±\pm1.8
J1 0.056±\pm0.011 0.429±\pm0.048 0.174±\pm0.034 124.0±\pm5.7
J4 0.1±\pm0.015 1.572±\pm0.202 0.812±\pm0.063 138.2±\pm7.0
2017 Apr 16 57859 C0 1.827±\pm0.092 0.0±\pm0.0 0.025±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.314±\pm0.018 0.158±\pm0.01 0.074±\pm0.014 146.0±\pm2.0
J1 0.059±\pm0.011 0.427±\pm0.05 0.185±\pm0.034 124.8±\pm6.0
J4 0.1±\pm0.015 1.607±\pm0.214 0.853±\pm0.065 139.2±\pm7.2
2017 May 13 57886 C0 2.423±\pm0.121 0.0±\pm0.0 0.024±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.46±\pm0.024 0.167±\pm0.009 0.073±\pm0.013 148.4±\pm1.5
J1 0.089±\pm0.012 0.411±\pm0.061 0.273±\pm0.038 124.4±\pm7.7
J4 0.109±\pm0.014 1.595±\pm0.144 0.638±\pm0.055 133.6±\pm4.9
2017 Jun 08 57912 C0 2.333±\pm0.117 0.0±\pm0.0 0.041±\pm0.006 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.345±\pm0.019 0.186±\pm0.01 0.067±\pm0.013 147.1±\pm1.4
J1 0.091±\pm0.012 0.385±\pm0.052 0.239±\pm0.035 127.3±\pm6.9
J4 0.116±\pm0.015 1.626±\pm0.168 0.751±\pm0.058 137.4±\pm5.6
2017 Jul 03 57937 C0 2.431±\pm0.122 0.0±\pm0.0 0.03±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.372±\pm0.02 0.191±\pm0.011 0.085±\pm0.015 148.5±\pm1.7
J1 0.078±\pm0.012 0.407±\pm0.059 0.248±\pm0.037 125.2±\pm7.5
J4 0.127±\pm0.015 1.656±\pm0.176 0.815±\pm0.059 139.0±\pm5.7
2017 Aug 06 57971 C0 2.988±\pm0.149 0.0±\pm0.0 0.024±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.301±\pm0.017 0.184±\pm0.01 0.073±\pm0.014 148.7±\pm1.7
J1 0.123±\pm0.013 0.413±\pm0.062 0.324±\pm0.038 136.4±\pm7.7
J4 0.091±\pm0.015 1.57±\pm0.185 0.721±\pm0.061 133.5±\pm6.4
2017 Sep 04 58000 C0 3.672±\pm0.184 0.0±\pm0.0 0.037±\pm0.005 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.223±\pm0.014 0.219±\pm0.011 0.067±\pm0.015 146.2±\pm1.6
J1 0.124±\pm0.013 0.347±\pm0.067 0.351±\pm0.039 134.8±\pm10.1
J4 0.101±\pm0.015 1.632±\pm0.174 0.719±\pm0.059 138.2±\pm5.8
2017 Nov 06 58063 C0 3.464±\pm0.173 0.0±\pm0.0 0.048±\pm0.006 0.0±\pm0.0
C2 0.113±\pm0.011 0.273±\pm0.018 0.09±\pm0.02 145.0±\pm2.7
J1 0.091±\pm0.013 0.422±\pm0.068 0.305±\pm0.04 129.8±\pm8.5
J4 0.077±\pm0.015 1.62±\pm0.203 0.719±\pm0.063 136.0±\pm6.8
2018 Mar 10 58187 C0 1.832±\pm0.092 0.0±\pm0.0 0.011±\pm0.004 0.0±\pm0.0
C3 1.256±\pm0.063 0.042±\pm0.009 0.105±\pm0.012 89.1±\pm5.0
J1 0.117±\pm0.013 0.415±\pm0.055 0.287±\pm0.036 136.3±\pm6.9
J4 0.049±\pm0.014 1.506±\pm0.187 0.534±\pm0.061 135.1±\pm6.7
2018 Apr 19 58227 C0 1.695±\pm0.085 0.0±\pm0.0 0.011±\pm0.004 0.0±\pm0.0
C3 0.844±\pm0.043 0.062±\pm0.009 0.102±\pm0.013 111.5±\pm4.0
J1 0.108±\pm0.013 0.438±\pm0.066 0.322±\pm0.039 131.1±\pm7.9
J4 0.063±\pm0.014 1.6±\pm0.187 0.606±\pm0.061 135.8±\pm6.3
2018 May 11 58249 C0 1.344±\pm0.067 0.0±\pm0.0 0.005±\pm0.003 0.0±\pm0.0
C3 0.704±\pm0.036 0.077±\pm0.01 0.101±\pm0.014 126.0±\pm3.6
J1 0.1±\pm0.013 0.44±\pm0.067 0.313±\pm0.039 134.8±\pm7.9
J4 0.072±\pm0.014 1.617±\pm0.167 0.587±\pm0.058 137.1±\pm5.6
2018 Jun 16 58285 C0 1.421±\pm0.071 0.0±\pm0.0 0.011±\pm0.004 0.0±\pm0.0
C3 0.418±\pm0.022 0.107±\pm0.013 0.113±\pm0.016 129.2±\pm4.1
J1 0.08±\pm0.012 0.482±\pm0.07 0.293±\pm0.04 131.2±\pm7.6
J4 0.058±\pm0.014 1.585±\pm0.168 0.531±\pm0.058 134.4±\pm5.7
2018 Jul 16 58315 C0 2.396±\pm0.12 0.0±\pm0.0 0.033±\pm0.006 0.0±\pm0.0
C3 0.337±\pm0.019 0.126±\pm0.014 0.119±\pm0.018 127.9±\pm4.2
J1 0.11±\pm0.013 0.441±\pm0.07 0.345±\pm0.04 137.5±\pm8.4
J4 0.102±\pm0.015 1.704±\pm0.194 0.795±\pm0.062 133.9±\pm6.2
2018 Aug 26 58356 C0 1.696±\pm0.085 0.0±\pm0.0 0.053±\pm0.008 0.0±\pm0.0
C3 0.077±\pm0.009 0.208±\pm0.01 0.033±\pm0.014 118.0±\pm1.3
J1 0.049±\pm0.013 0.534±\pm0.09 0.286±\pm0.045 124.9±\pm9.0
J4 0.029±\pm0.014 1.559±\pm0.196 0.427±\pm0.062 136.6±\pm6.8
Table 1: Continued.
111The columns are (1) observing date in year month day format, (2) observing date in modified Julian date, (3) identification of the jet component, (4) flux density in Jy, (5) relative distance from the core in mas, (6) size of the jet component in mas, and (7) relative position angle with respect to the core in degrees.